The idea that thought consists of the operation of a physical device is consistent with
1. Materialism.
2. Monism.
3. Dualism.
4. Vitalist view.
5. Non-vitalist view.
Major developments in classical cognitive science include
6. Formal Logics.
7. State transitions.
8. Formalization of the notion of computation.
9. The construction of a general purpose electronic computing machine.
10. The development of high level programming techniques.
Justifications for treating mental phenomena as kinds of computation include
11. Thinkers appear to be physical devices whose behavior patterns are reason-respecting.
12. The inputs and outputs of thinkers cannot be usefully and systematically interpreted and represented.
13. There is no viable scientific alternative.
14. The observed fit between chaos theory and psychopathology.
Principal objections to the idea that mindware corresponds to the Software of the Brain include
15. Computer software only mimics mindware, it doesn’t do any real thinking.
16. Software lacks qualitative sensations.
17. Software lacks chemicals, hormones, and emotions.
18. Scientists are not yet sure if conscious awareness is an informational phenomenon.
According to Turing, in order to pass the Turing Test a system
19. must be able fool the interrogator in ongoing, open-ended conversation.
20. must be able to correctly answer any question posed by a human interrogator.
21. may make its responses in written text.
22. should be considered a successful simulation of a person.
Churchland argues that
23. Folk psychology is inconsistent with brain imaging results.
24. Nothing in the brain corresponds to beliefs, desires, or intentions.
25. Reason-respecting behavior provides a good language to discuss input/output relationships but does not account for unconsciousness or dreaming.
26. Folk psychology is a good description of human behavior, but the elements of folk psychology will not be found in the brain.
The universal Turing machine is
27. an imaginary device.
28. one of the first digital computers.
29. a symbolic AI program that mimics reason-guided transitions in human thought.
30. perfected in McCarthy's LISP around 1960.
A physical symbol system is said to
31. have a set of interpretable and combinable symbols.
32. be up and running wherever you find an intelligent system.
33. be semantically transparent.
34. preserve semantic sense through the operation of formal syntactic rules.
35. use parallel processing.
Searle’s Chinese Room thought experiment was intended to show that
36. real understanding can occur through the use of formal operations.
37. the material substrate of cognition matters.
38. Chinese speakers are not easily fooled.
39. symbol manipulation alone is not sufficient to produce semantics.
Newell’s “cognitive band” refers to
40. a layer of neurons just below the surface of the cerebral cortex.
41. a level of cognitive operation in which most significant events occur in a time frame of 10 milliseconds to 10 seconds.
42. a data bus in a digital computer that simulates thought.
43. a musical group in which Andy Clark plays lead guitar.
Common criticism(s) of symbolic A.I. is/are that it
44. proceeds as if any implementation that works is as good as any other.
45. might model novice performance, but not expert performance.
46. can only use redundant pattern matching to capture any depth of understanding.
47. attempts to equate “knowing how” with “knowing that.”
SOAR is a
48. connectionist architecture.
49. fight simulator.
50. physical symbol system.
51. robotic bird designed by artificial life experts.
The "bag of tricks" approach to cognition focuses on
52. a uniform learning procedure.
53. top-down processing.
54. interconnected neural systems involving adaptive solutions to everyday problems.
55. a collection of behavioral resources an organism can choose to use.
Which of the following approaches to cognition would accept the idea that there must be a well-individuated inner item that corresponds to the belief that it is raining?
57. Symbolic A.I.
58. Dynamic system theory
59. Eliminativism
The back-propagation learning algorithm is
60. a method of deriving new symbols in a PSS.
61. a procedure for adjusting weights in a connectionist network.
63. a procedure by which the spinal column makes new connections.
Information is represented in a neural net
64. as letters.
65. as semantically transparent symbols.
66. as patterns of activation across groups of units.
67. information is not represented at all.
Arguments
favoring connectionist models of human thought include
68.
the fact that thought is systematic.
69.
that infants suffering from brain lesions
often later exhibit no demonstrable loss of mental function.
70.
that neural networks can focus on many different
tasks at the same time.
71.
that neural networks exhibit some of the
properties of real neuronal systems.
Third-generation
neural nets transcend second-generation networks
72.
by adding a context layer of units to the input,
output and hidden layers.
73.
by more heavily emphasizing time evolution
of the networks.
74.
by more closely attempting to mimic
neuronal systems by the introduction of noise, time-delays in inter-unit messaging,
and more connectivity.
75.
because they use faster and more powerful.
First
generation neural nets
76.
typically use three unit layers: input, hidden,
and output.
77.
include NetTalk, a
grapheme to phoneme translator.
78.
were able to decipher the time evolution of a
facial expression or translate words strung together in sentences.
79.
did not need a substantial body of example
cases to 'learn' the rules of a system.
"Inner
symbol flight"
80.
asserts that human thought is not semantically
transparent.
81.
asserts that consciousness is better described
as emerging from dynamically evolving states among distributed areas of the
brain rather than a time sequence of single well-defined brain states.
82.
describes the inability of researchers to decipher
the symbolic states exhibited by the human brain.
83.
implies the absence of any neural syntax in the
human brain.
83.
Second generation neural nets represent temporal structure by
85. using extra units in the hidden layers.
86. using recurrent connections as in the Elman net or Jordan net.
87. the delta rule for updating connection weights.
88. connectionists have ignored the problem because it cannot be solved.
Connectionist networks are typically programmed by
89. pseudo-random assignment of values to the weights.
90. the interpretation of subsymbolic rule sets.
91. the experience of input/output pairs.
92. assigning particular algorithmic steps to particular units in the network.
Which of the following is/are not among Marr's three levels of description?
93. Perceptual
94. Implementational
95. Representational
96. Conceptual
97. Computational
Churchland, Ramachandran, and Sejnowski's "interactive vision" paradigm argues against which of the following statements?
98. Motor action may be employed for better perception.
99. Daily agent-environment interactions depend on the construction and the use of detailed inner models of the full 3D scene.
100. Representations are sequentially propagated through perception, cognition and action.
101. Object-centered representations are used as internal representations of events in the world.
The macaque visual system
102. makes use of bottom-up processing.
103. makes use of top-down processing.
104. makes use of side-to-side processing.
105. is organized in a strictly hierarchical fashion.
106. is impoverished and contains only a small number of areas.
Human-designed computer systems, unlike biologically evolved systems, are typically
107. constrained by simpler but successful ancestral forms.
108. increasingly aware of the important interpenetration of perception, thought, and action.
109. functionally decomposable.
110. reliant on genetic algorithms.
The subsumption architecture
111. is intended to explain reason-respecting flow.
112. features several simple, independent layers of circuitry.
113. offers a means of coordinating a "bag of tricks" (multiple special purpose processes).
114. implements Marr's 3 levels of analysis.
115. explains termite nest building.
Which of the following is a main theme in Artificial Life/ Robotics research?
116. A focus on complete, autonomous, low-level organisms.
117. The organism needs rich internal representations as models of the world.
118. Appreciation of the importance of body, action, and environmental context to adaptive behavior.
119. Special attention to emergence and collective effects.
120. Basing explanations on ungrounded causation with no reference to any physical influence.
Which of the following phenomena can the artificial life approach easily account for?
121. Planning a family vacation.
122. Flocking behavior.
123. Termite nest building.
124. Spiraling metacontemplation.
125. Everyday coping.
Webb's robot cricket (modeling cricket phonotaxis) is an example of
126. real-time, real-world problem solving.
127. an engineering solution: the hear-localize-locomote cycle.
128. the use of central processing strategies.
129. the employment of a special purpose strategy.
130. a complex interaction of brain, body and world.
Godfrey-Smith's thesis of "strong continuity" states that
131. emergent behavior needs to take into account agent-agent and agent-environment interactions.
132. prediction requires simulation.
133. life can be defined as "supple adaptation" - the capacity to respond appropriately to an unlimited variety of events.
134. the central characteristics of mind are, in a large part, those of life in general.
135. there is in principle no difference between the processes engendering walking, reaching and looking for hidden objects and those resulting in mathematics and poetry.
136. Emergence as Novel Behavior: the whole is more than the sum of its parts.
137. Emergence as Collective Self-Organization: interesting behavior that arises as a direct result of multiple, self-organizing interactions occurring in a system of simple elements.
138. Emergence as Interactive Complexity: complex, cyclic interactions give rise to stable and salient patterns of systemic behavior.
139. Emergence as Weak Nonlinearity: multiple, nonlinear, temporally asynchronous interactions result in simple kinds of feedback loops.
A dynamical systems account of cognitive science suggests
140. that the body and world are irrelevant when determining solutions to problems.
141. the importance of positive feed-back loops and circular causality.
142. that the input-compute-act cycle must run continuously in complex, interactive processes.
143. that complex causal structures resist a representational approach.
In Pollack’s analogy concerning the history of flight, the claim is made that
144. the existence of symbolic thought obscures our perception of cognition.
145. we were led astray by the most superficially salient feature of natural flight, namely the flapping.
146. a computational account is the best way to simulate a real-time dynamic system.
147. focusing on symbolic problem solving doesn’t get us were we need to go.
An object-centered representation is
148. view-point independent.
149. action-oriented.
150. characteristic of cognitive processes in higher animals.
151. compatible with the symbolic computational approach.
What are Thelen and Smith talking about when they say, "in principle there is no difference between the processes engendering walking, reaching, and looking for hidden objects and those resulting in mathematics and poetry."
152. Cognition is seamless and dynamic.
153. Cognitive incrementalism.
154. Artificial life makes no distinction between these tasks.
155. The neural substrate governing these activities is identical.
The following are examples of “Wideware”
156. Software that operates on a range of hardware platforms.
157. External cognitive aides.
158. Artificial cognitive aides.
159. The high-bandwidth structures in the brain.
160. Pens and paper.
Which of the following are consistent with the idea of neural constructivism?
161. Neural and cortical growth are experience dependent.
162. Neural growth is the fine tuning of circuitry whose basic shape and form are already determined at birth.
163. The learning device is physically changed as a result of organism/environmental interaction.
164. Learning does not alter the computational architecture – it only alters the knowledge base.
165. reason respecting behavior.
166. neural constructivism.
167. cognitive dovetailing.
168. external symbol manipulation.
When
169. our minds are in our brains, and brains exchange energy and fluids with other bodily systems.
170. mind is an intrinsically boundary-crossing phenomenon.
171. mind consists of events and processes that happen mostly at the "cognitive level" of organization.
172. the symbolic contents of one mind reach other minds via communication.
1. Which of the following are good reasons for studying cognition in the wild?
(a) Animals are more representative of cognition than people are.
(b) Most human cognitive activity takes place outside of laboratory experiments.
(c) Thinking may involve interactions with the environment that are difficult to replicate in laboratory settings.
(d) Laboratory experiments are a worthless method to understand cognition.
(e) It is difficult to generalize laboratory findings to real-world situations.
(f) To discover what people actually use their cognitive abilities for.
(g) To find explanations of human cognitive accomplishment.
(h) Because descriptions based on the propagation of representational state cannot easily be applied to findings of laboratory studies.
2. Which of the following does Hutchins propose are mistakes that have been made by mainstream cognitive science?
(a) The assumption that the cognitive properties of sociocultural systems are identical to the cognitive properties of the individuals in those systems.
(b) The assumption that the computer was made in the image of the person.
(c) The disembodiment of cognition.
(d) The assumption that cognitive processes form a cognitive ecology.
3. What is the attribution problem in cognitive science?
(a) Cognitive attributes of the individual are often overlooked within the distributed cognition framework.
(b) Cognitive science tends to attribute human-like cognitive properties to computers.
(c) Because we cannot directly observe internal cognitive processes, we must attribute properties based on observed behavior.
(d) Breakdowns in cognitive systems are mistakenly attributed to redundant processing of information within the system.
4. I work at a local bookstore. One day a co-worker of mine makes a mistake using the cash register and the boss comes to help her. According to Cognition in the Wild, I should have the opportunity to
(a) Learn from the correction of the mistakes of others
(b) Learn by detecting and correcting
(c) Learn by trial and error
(d) Take my co-worker’s job
5. Why is it that skilled task performers sometimes have difficulty describing how they go about performing a procedure?
(a) The procedure for performing the task may have become completely automated.
(b) They may no longer have a memory of the mediating structure that represented the task when they originally learned it.
(c) Because the mediating structure was present in the environment while the skill was being acquired, such that internalization of the explicit mediating representations did not occur.
6. Which of the following is true of mediating structures as described in CITW?
(a) They may be exemplified by store layouts, rules of logic, or written procedures.
(b) They must be embodied in physical artifacts.
(c) They occur infrequently in everyday life.
(d) They prevent the coordination of a performer and a task in a functional system.
7. The Physical Symbol System Hypothesis expects
(a) That intelligence, in all its many forms, will be always be found to be constructed by a PSS.
(b) That computers will one day surpass humans in cognitive abilities.
(c) That reason-respecting behavior arises from the manipulation of inner symbols
(d) That implementation is irrelevant to the operation of the “virtual machine” at the level of symbol manipulation.
8. The idea that the structure of one’s native language determines properties of individual thought
(a) Is not useful in the study of cognition.
(b) Is useful if the task is organized in such a way that subjects can use the structure of their language as a mediating resource in organizing task performance.
(c) Reflects the idea of a one-way trajectory of information propagation.
(d) Does not hold because activities that exemplify computational systems, such as navigation, are recognizable across cultures and hence across different languages.
9. Which of the following moves did cognitive anthropology make as part of the cognitive revolution?
(a) It insisted that models of cultural processes be computational in nature.
(b) It lost interest in how people go about knowing what they know and in the contribution of the environments in which the knowing is accomplished.
(c) It aligned itself with cognitive neuroscience and sought explanation of culture in terms of states of the waking brain.
(d) It turned away from society by looking inward to the knowledge an individual had to have to function as a member of the culture.
10. The concept of “scaffolding”, as discussed in CITW, is
(a) The system in which the lowest-ranking officer is superior in the command structure to the highest-ranking enlisted person.
(b) A temporary structure that was put in place to support the bridge of the ship.
(c) The structure an expert provides to constrain a novice’s activity while the novice is learning a new skill.
(d) The propagation of representations through the fix cycle, such that one stage builds on the next.
11. In order to detect error, one must have which of the following?
(a) A perspective on the activity that permits one to monitor the organization of the activity.
(b) Expectations about the correct course of events.
(c) A representation of the possible types of error.
(d) The authority to alter the organization of the process.
12. Stacking navigation charts in the order in which they will be needed is an example of
(a) Facilitating communication to produce better collective cognition.
(b) A precomputation which redistributes workload over time.
(c) Clearing the workspace for the bearing recorder and his log.
(d) An old navigation practice that has fallen out of use with the advent of GPS.
13. Confirmation bias is
(a) The tendency of a neural network to form recurrent connections.
(b) A tendency to affirm prior interpretations.
(c) The tendency to discount evidence that runs counter to an already formed interpretation.
(d) Likely to become a problem in the legal system if jurors are permitted to discuss the case with each other during the presentation of evidence.
14. When we say that the decomposition of a task fits a division of labor, we mean
(a) the parts of the task have been assigned to different people in a way that avoids bottlenecks in communication
(b) as procedures get older they lose coherence and social measures must be taken to keep them working
(c) as long as everyone is working in parallel, the task will get done
(d) increasing the amount of communication normally improves system performance
15. Why does the language of internal mental events seem to fit the description of socially and materially distributed cognition so well?
(a) because social systems operate via the same mechanisms as the brain
(b) because the properties of visible social and material systems were the source of the metaphors originally used by researchers to represent the invisible processes inside the mind
(c) because distributed cognition borrowed the language of mental events to describe socially distributed cognitive systems
(d) because all intelligence is a form of physical symbol system
16. In order to understand navigation as it is practiced in the navy, Professor Hutchins (and you as readers) had to move through which of the following kinds of space?
(a) Physical space
(b) Conceptual space
(c) Social space
(d) Chart space
(e) Relative space
17. Why does the navigation team continuously create and maintain records of the position of the ship while entering a harbor?
(a) For purposes of accountability
(b) For safety
(c) To coordinate with the task force commander
(d) Because the ship is heavy, has lots of momentum, and does not turn quickly
18. David Marr said that to understand any computational system it should be described in which of the following ways?
(a) specify the tasks undertaken by individuals
(b) specify the social organization of the system
(c) specify the constraints that are satisfied by the operation of the system
(d) specify the representations for the input and output
(e) specify the role played by different sensory modalities.
(f) specify how representations are realized physically
19. Navigation is a subject well suited for study under the distributed cognition approach because
(a) it has a long, well-documented history
(b) it deals with a small set of well-understood problems
(c) outcomes that matter are usually determined by a single watch stander
(d) it is an event-driven activity
20. Which of the following are normally considered to be responsibilities of a cognitive ethnographer?
(a) To live in the community under study.
(b) To translate ethnographic findings into testable hypotheses to be examined in a laboratory setting.
(c) To understand the native language.
(d) To become a full-fledged member of the community under study.
(e) To record and transform data into representations so that cognitive properties become visible.
21. Which of the following tools and concepts did Micronesian navigators use?
(a) Navigational tools carved by ancestors and handed down through the years.
(b) Imaginary islands
(c) Imagining the horizon as a curved line
(d) Imagining the islands moving past the canoe
(e) Standard units of distance
22. The
divergence between modern Western navigation and earlier forms of navigation,
including that practiced in
(a) Building computational constraints into the physical structure of artifacts
(b) Conversion of sub-symbolic representations to symbolic representations
(c) Increasing reliance on individual cognition
(d) Creating computational tools by superimposing various kinds of imagined structure
(e) Increasing reliance on navigation charts
23. A functional system is a set of structures or processes brought into coordination in order to perform a task. Which of the following structures and processes are involved in computing rate from distance and time using the 3-minute rule?
(a) Knowledge of the procedures for place-value arithmetic
(b) Knowledge of the times tables
(c) Scale reading skills
(d) The ability to draw a line using a straightedge
(e) The ability to selectively attend to written digits
24. An activity score
(a) can show the propagation of representations through different media
(b) can show the propagation of representations through time
(c) is equally suited to show bottom-up (sensors to central decision makers) and top-down (central decision makers to sensors) information flow
(d) has an axis for time
(e) has an axis for space
(f) has an axis for representational media
25. The following make a navigation team a robust system:
(a) the bearing recorder has previously been a plotter and a pelorus operator
(b) knowledge of entry-level tasks is represented redundantly
(c) horizons of observation for some pairs of workers overlap each other
(d) the alidade and fathometer do not have “open” interfaces
26. In Cognition in the Wild, Professor Hutchins makes which of the following arguments?
(a) It's important to describe the properties of individuals before discussing the culturally constituted worlds in which those properties are manifested.
(b) A close examination of the context for thinking may change our minds about what counts as a characteristic human cognitive task.
(c) A proper understanding of human cognition must acknowledge the continual dynamic interconnectivity of functional elements inside and outside the skin.
(d) The relation between person and environment is best conceived in terms of moving coded information across a boundary.
(e) It is important to get the right functional specification for the human cognitive system before constructing models of unobservable internal processes.
27. From the perspective of distributed cognition, which of the following statements about individual learning are true?
(a) Learning is adaptive reorganization in a complex system.
(b) Mastery of the skills of a job appears as a shift in the location of the mediating structures that constrain the organization of action.
(c) Individual learning is basically the internalization of external structures in internal media.
(d) The learning that happens inside an individual is simply adaptation of structure in one part of a complex system to organization in other parts.
(e) Organization propagates from external to internal media and not from internal to external media.
28. Which of the following statements correctly describes the use of a written procedure to mediate task performance?
(a) The task performer must coordinate with both the written procedure and the environment in which the actions are to be taken.
(b) The sequential relations among the steps of a procedure are explicitly encoded in the physical structure of the list.
(c) The meaning of a step can be decoded directly from the words of the procedure.
(d) Conceptual dependencies between steps must be understood before the procedure can be carried out without the external mediating artifact.
(e) Using an external artifact to mediate performance requires alternation of attention, while using an internal artifact allows simultaneous coordination.
29. Suppose the gyrocompass fails and the pelorus operators start reporting relative bearings. Now in order to compute the true bearing of each landmark, the plotter starts with the magnetic compass heading (C) plus the deviation (D), then adds the relative bearing (RB) from the bearing log, and finally adds in the magnetic variation (V). This procedure requires a total of nine additions per fix cycle. After several iterations, the plotter recognizes that C, D, and V do not change during a single fix cycle, so he adds them first (C + D + V), names this sum the “true head”, and adds it to each relative bearing to get the true bearing. This procedure requires only five additions per fix cycle. How does the second procedure differ from the first?
(a) It uses pre-computation to transform the task.
(b) It takes advantage of modularity.
(c) It involves a new division of labor.
(d) It uses a new cognitive artifact.
(e) It changes the fit between computational structure and social structure.
30. Which of the following would be useful design criteria for a new procedure for computing position fixes without the use of the gyrocompass?
(a) Avoid bottlenecks in communication.
(b) Spread the workload across members of the team to avoid overloading any individual.
(c) Avoid parallel activity because of potential discoordinations, collisions, and conflicts.
(d) Incorporate sequence control measures to coordinate activity.
(e) Take advantage of the benefits of modularizing the computation.
31. After the failure of the gyrocompass, which of the following factors played a role in organizing the computation?
(a) Using a normative description to order the terms.
(b) Adding personnel to the navigation team.
(c) Following the timing and location of data in the environment.
(d) Adding an artifact that changed the pattern of social interactions.
(e) Detecting errors by comparing with redundant representations from the backup gyrocompass.
(f) Struggling with the limitations of working memory.
(g) Naming intermediate sums that had meaningful interpretations.
32. What are the costs of failing to see cognition as a cultural process?
(a) Mistaking the properties of the system for those of the individual.
(b) Overattributing responsibility for producing behaviors to internal structures.
(c) Underemphasizing the boundary between inside and outside.
(d) Being unable to explain why individuals in primitive cultures have primitive minds.
(e) Marginalizing culture in the study of cognition.
33. Which of the following are characteristic views of traditional (“classical”) cognitive science:
(a) The mind is a physical symbol system and therefore an instance of a "universal Turing machine."
(b) Cognition is concerned with abstractly defined operations such as storing, retrieving, and altering tokens of symbolic codes.
(c) Artificial intelligence and information-processing psychology have a synergistic relationship to each other and are the principal motors of progress in cognitive science.
(d) Culture, history, context, and affect are essential components of individual cognition.
34. Which of the following claims does Professor Hutchins make in Cognition in the Wild?
(a) The computer was made in the image of the person.
(b) The separation of perceptual and motor processes from cognitive processes is an empirical fact.
(c) The physical-symbol-system architecture is a model of the operation of a sociocultural system from which the human actor has been removed.
(d) Symbols are in the world first and only later in the head.
(e) To say that humans are processors of symbolic structures is to say that the architecture of cognition is symbolic.
(f) A benefit of cognitive ethnography for cognitive science is a refinement of a functional specification for the human cognitive system.
35. Wideware is
(a) software that operates on a range of hardware platforms
(b) cognitive technology
(c) physical symbols encoded in widely distributed representations
(d) the parts of wetware that have adequate bandwidth
36. A central theme of robotics work in artificial life is
(a) generating and manipulating rich internal representations of the task environment
(b) powerful inference methods to search large problem spaces
(c) the construction of complete but low-level artificial organisms
(d) efficient transduction of sensory data into symbolic codes
37. Which of the following is an emergent property
(a) the velocity of a stadium wave
(b) the throttle valve in a Watt governor
(c) the cricket tracheal tube
(d) folk psychology